Schinopsis brasiliensis Engler-Phytochemical Properties, Biological Activities, and Ethnomedicinal Use: A Scoping Review.

Brazil has the most incredible biodiversity globally and has a vast storehouse of molecules to be discovered. However, there are no pharmacological and phytochemical studies on most native plants. Parts of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engler, a tree from the Anacardiaceae family, are used by several traditional communities to treat injuries and health problems. The objective of this scoping review was to summarize the pharmacological information about S. brasiliensis, from ethnobotanical to phytochemical and biological studies. Data collection concerning the geographical distribution of S. brasiliensis specimens was achieved through the Reflora Virtual Herbarium. The study's protocol was drafted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). The search strategy used the keyword "Schinopsis brasiliensis" in the databases: PUBMED, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Science Direct, Web of Science, SciFinder, and SciELO. Rayyan was used for the selection of eligible studies. In total, 35 studies were included in the paper. The most recurrent therapeutic indications were for general pain, flu and inflammation. The bark was the most studied part of the plant. The most used preparation method was decoction and infusion, followed by syrup. Phytochemical investigations indicate the presence of tannins, flavonoids, phenols, and polyphenols. Most of the substances were found in the plant's leaf and bark. Important biological activities were reported, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. S. brasiliensis is used mainly by communities in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil to treat several diseases. Pharmacological and phytochemical studies together provide scientific support for the popular knowledge of the medicinal use of S. brasiliensis. In vitro and in vivo analyses reported antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, cytotoxic, photoprotective, preservative, molluscicidal, larvicidal, and pupicidal effects. It is essential to highlight the need for future studies that elucidate the mechanisms of action of these phytocompounds.

Impacto da biomodificação com extrato de Schinopsis brasiliensis (Braúna) na resistência máxima à tração de um selante resinoso / Impact of biomodification with Schinopsis brasiliensis (Braúna) extract on the maximum tensile strength of a resinous sealant

Introdução: Os selantes resinosos apresentam uma alta taxa de sucesso na prevenção da cárie dentária, porém não possuem atividade antibacteriana, sendo a incidência de novas lesões um dos fatores que ainda causam impacto negativo na qualidade de vida das pessoas. A biomodificação com o extrato da Schinopsis brasiliensis (Braúna) pode ser uma alternativa no aperfeiçoamento das suas características clínicas. Objetivo: Avaliar se a biomodificação do selante Fluroshield® com diferentes concentrações do extrato do caule do Schinopsis brasiliensis afeta sua resistência máxima à tração (resistência coesiva). Metodologia: O extrato foi pesado em balança analítica e misturado ao selante nas concentrações de 0 mg/mL (controle), 20 mg/mL, 5 mg/mL e 1,25 mg/mL e espatulado por 1 min., utilizando uma placa de vidro. Amostras em formato de barra com dimensões de 8 mm (comprimento) x 2 mm (largura) e 1 mm (espessura) foram confeccionadas (n=3) e submetidas ao teste de resistência máxima à tração em máquina de ensaio semi universal (OM 100). Antes da fixação delas nas placas de ensaio, a medida da secção transversal (mm2) foi aferida com paquímetro. Os dados foram obtidos em Kgf e transformados em MPa. A análise estatística foi realizada pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis (p<0,05). Resultados: A resistência máxima à tração dos grupos em mediana (mínimo-máximo) dos grupos 0 mg/mL (controle), 20 mg/mL, 5 mg/mL e 1,25 mg/mL foi, respectivamente, 56 (29-56), 53 (45-60), 48 (46-62) e 61 (38-64). Não houve diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre os grupos (p=0,8). Conclusão: A adição do extrato do caule de Schinopsis brasiliensis não reduziu a resistência máxima à tração do selante Fluroshield® (AU).

Introduction: Resin-based sealants have a high success rate in preventing dental caries, but they do not have antibacterial activity, so that a high incidence of caries lesions is observed, which negatively impacts on health quality. The biomodification with the Schinopsis brasiliensis (Braúna) stem extract may be an alternative to improve its clinical characteristics. Objective: To evaluate if the biomodification of the Fluroshield® sealant with different amounts of Schinopsis brasiliensis affects its ultimate tensile strength. Methods: The extract was weighed on an analytical balance and mixed with the sealant in different concentrations: 0 mg/mL (control), 20 mg/mL, 5 mg/mL and 1.25 mg/mL by mixing for 1 min. Bar-shaped specimens with dimensions of 8 mm x 2 mm x 1 mm were prepared (n=3). The ultimate tensile strength was measured using a microtensile machine (OM100). Before testing, the sectional area (mm2) was obtained with a caliper. Data were obtained in Kgf and transformed into MPa. Statistical analysis was performed using the Kruskal-Wallis test (p<0.05). Results: The maximum tensile strength in median (minimum-maximum) of the 0 mg/mL (control), 20 mg/mL, 5 mg/mL and 1.25 mg/mL groups was, respectively, 56 (29-56), 53 (45-60), 48 (46- 62) and 61 (38-64). There were no statistically significant differences among the groups (p=0.8). Conclusion: The addition of Schinopsis brasiliensis stem extract did not decrease the ultimate tensile strength of the Fluroshield® sealant (AU).

New dimer and trimer of chalcone derivatives from anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive extracts of Schinopsis brasiliensis roots.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE: Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. is an endemic tree of the Brazilian semi-arid regions belonging to the Anacardiaceae family. It is the main representative of the genus Schinopsis, mostly native to Brazil and popularly known as "braúna" or "baraúna". Different parts of this plant are employed in Brazilian folk medicines to treat inflammation in general, sexual impotence, cough, and influenza. AIM OF THE STUDY: This work describes the antinociceptive (acetic acid-induced writhing and formalin-induced nociception) and anti-inflammatory (paw edema and neutrophil migration) activities of the extract of the root of S. brasiliensis. Besides, the evaluation of total phenolic compounds and antioxidant, antimicrobial (including MRSA bacteria), and acetylcholinesterase inhibition activities were also determined. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The pure compounds were isolated by different chromatographic techniques and their chemical structures have been unambiguously elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D (1H, 13C, DEPT, and NOEdiff) and 2D (HSQC, HMBC, and NOESY) NMR experiments, MS data, and comparison with the literature data of similar compounds. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated by acid acetic writhing test, formalin paw edema, and by the investigation of neutrophil migration to the peritoneal cavities of mice. For antimicrobial evaluation were determined MIC and MBC, antioxidant activities were obtained by TPC and DPPH tests, and AChE inhibition by Elmann's methodology. RESULTS: The extracts showed antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities and two unusual new compounds, a cyclobutanyl chalcone trimer (schinopsone A) and a cyclohexene-containing chalcone dimer (schinopsone B), with six known compounds were isolated from the active extracts. Additionally, the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity for isolated compounds was reported for the first time in this study. Molecular docking studies indicated that the isolated compounds are responsible for the interaction with anti-inflammatory targets (COX 1 and 2 and LOX) with variable binding affinities, indicating a possible mechanism of action of these compounds. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate for the first time the correlation between the anti-inflammatory activity different enriched polyphenol-organic soluble fractions of S. brasiliensis, and it contributes to the understanding of the anti-inflammatory potential of S. brasiliensis.

Antimicrobial Activity of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engler Extract-Loaded Chitosan Microparticles in Oral Infectious Disease.

Enterococcus faecalis infections represent a health concern, mainly in oral diseases, in which treatments with chlorhexidine solution (0.2%) are often used; however, it presents high toxicity degree and several side effects. Based on this, the use of natural products as an alternative to treatment has been explored. Nonetheless, plant extracts have poor organoleptic characteristics that impair theirs in natura use. Therefore, this work aimed to evaluate the analytical profile, biological activity, and cytotoxicity in vitro of S. brasiliensis-loaded chitosan microparticles (CMSb) produced using different aspersion flow rates. The analytical fingerprint was obtained by FTIR and NIR spectra. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to verify the similarity between the samples. The crystallinity degree was evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Phytochemical screening (PS) was performed to quantify phytocompounds. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Antibiofilm activity and bactericidal kinetics against E. faecalis (ATCC 29212 and MB 146-clinical isolated) were also assessed. The hemolytic potential was performed to evaluate the cytotoxicity. Data provided by FTIR, NIR, and PCA analyses revealed chemical similarity between all CMSb. Furthermore, the results from XRD analysis showed that the obtained CMSb present amorphous characteristic. Tannins and polyphenols were accurately quantified by the PS, but methodology limitations did not allow the flavonoid quantification. The low hemolytic potential assay indicates that all samples are safe. Antimicrobial assays revealed that CMSb were able to inhibit not only the E. faecalis ATCC growth but also the biofilm formation. Only one CMSb sample was able to inhibit the clinical strain. These results highlighted the CMSb antimicrobial potential and revealed this system as a promising product to treat infections caused by E. faecalis.

Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. to combat the biofilm-dependents diseases in vitro

Dental caries and periodontal disease are the most prevalent of the biofilm-dependent diseases. With numerous side effects on the use of chlorhexidine, the search for new safe therapeutic alternatives for microorganisms involved with these diseases increases every day. This study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity of extracts made from the bark of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. against five oral microorganisms and analyze their phytochemical and thermal degradation profile. The liquid-liquid partition was performed with hexane, chloroform and ethyl acetate. The identification and quantification of the chemical marker was done. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated based on the minimum inhibitory concentration. The cytotoxicity was analyzed based on the hemolysing potential of the samples. The thermal degradation profile was performed by two different methods. Gallic acid was identified as the main compound of the samples and showed the highest amount in the chloroform fraction. All samples were able to inhibit the growth of the microorganisms tested and showed no cytotoxicity. The ethanol extract absorbs less heat than the fractions. All samples exhibited exothermic peak consistent with degradation of gallic acid. Based on the results, the samples used are potential candidates for use in dental formulations for biofilm control.

Anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and antioxidant properties of Schinopsis brasiliensis bark.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Schinopsis brasiliensis is a native plant from Brazil, popularly used in folk medicine to relieve pain and treat inflammation. This study evaluated the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities and antioxidant properties of the hydroethanol extract (HEE) and ethyl acetate fraction (EAF) obtained from S. brasiliensis bark. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The HEE and EAF of S. brasiliensis bark (10, 30 and 100mg/kg, p.o.) were evaluated using models of analgaesia (formalin-induced licking and hot-plate models) or inflammation (licking response by formalin-induced and carrageenan-induced cell migration into the subcutaneous air pouch). The antioxidant activities of HEE and EAF (50, 100 and 200µg/ml) were evaluated using the lipoperoxidation method induced in egg yolk by 2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) and FeSO4. RESULTS: HEE and EAF presented a central antinociceptive effect (at 100mg/kg dose), increasing the baseline and area under the curve in the hot plate model. EAF (100mg/kg) significantly reduced (p< 0.005) the pain response in the first (45%) and second (35%) phases of the formalin-induced licking model, while HEE (100mg/kg) reduced (38%) only the pain response in the second phase. Regarding anti-inflammatory activity, EAF (100mg/kg) also inhibited the inflammatory process induced by subcutaneous carrageenan injection in the SAP model, reducing the amount of the cytokine TNF-α produced. CONCLUSION: HEE and EAF from S. brasiliensis bark show pharmacological interest because they were able to inhibit the peripheral and central transmission of pain. Our data also suggest that the anti-inflammatory activity caused by EAF exposure occurs through the inhibition of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α, also reducing the spreading of the inflammatory processes by neutralizing reactive oxygen species, which are by-products in the biosynthesis of pain mediators.

Isolation of antioxidant phenolics from Schinopsis brasiliensis based on a preliminary LC-MS profiling.

The phenolic content of the ethanol extract of the stem bark of the Brazilian plant Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. (Anacardiaceae) has been evaluated together with the antioxidant activity. The good antioxidant activity exhibited in the Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) assay (TEAC value = 3.04 mg/mL) encouraged us to investigate its constituents. An analytical approach based on LC-ESIMSn was applied to rapidly obtain a metabolite profile of the ethanol extract of the stem bark of S. brasiliensis. Sixteen phenolic compounds, among which five galloyl derivatives, never reported before, have been isolated and their structures have been unambiguously elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods, including 1D (1H, 13C, TOCSY) and 2D (DQF-COSY, HMBC, and HSQC) NMR experiments. Moreover, the antioxidant activity of all the isolated compounds was evaluated, along with the cytotoxicity against the cancer cell lines A549 (human alveolar basal carcinoma) and Hela (human epitheloid cervix carcinoma). The previously undescribed compounds exhibited a high free-radical-scavenging activity, in the range of 1.10-1.86 mM. None of the tested compounds, in a range of concentrations between 12.5 and 100 µM, caused a significant reduction of the cell number.

Development of a rapid and simple HPLC-UV method for determination of gallic acid in Schinopsis brasiliensis

AbstractThe aim of this work was to develop and validate an analytical method for the identification of the chemical marker of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl., Anacardiaceae. It would determine the total polyphenols and flavonoid content by spectrophotometric methodology in the dried extract of plant. The chromatographic profiles of S. brasiliensis were determined using HPLC-UV. The liquid chromatography method was conducted on a Phenomenex Gemini NX C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm). The mobile phase consisted of 0.05% orthophosphoric acid: methanol. The flow rate was 1 ml/min and effluents were monitored at 271 nm. The retention time for gallic acid was 8.5 min. The described method has the advantage of being both rapid and easy. Hence it can be applied for routine quality control analysis of herbal preparation containing S. brasiliensis.

Modulation of the erythromycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus by ethanolic extracts of Ximenia americana L and Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl / Modulación de la resistencia a la eritromicina en Staphylococcus aureus por extractos etanólicos de Ximeniaamericana L y Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl

It was evaluated the in vitro efficacy of ethanolic extract of leaves and bark of Ximenia americana L and Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. alone and in association with erythromycin as modulators of microbial resistance against six clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to erythromycin (SA1-SA6) and S. aureus ATCC 25923 by the microdilution method. The extracts were also subjected to bioassay with Artemia salina. The ethanolic extract of barks of X. americana showed a synergistic effect with erythromycin against SA01, SA03 and SA04. The leaf extract of S. brasiliensis exerted synergistic effect against SA03 and the bark extract showed against SA01 and S03. The results suggest that extracts from S.brasiliensis and X. americana have potential as modulator agents of bacterial resistance, which could be used as adjuvants in the treatment of infections by S. aureus resistant to erythromycin, with previous studies of toxicity.

Se evaluó la eficacia in vitro de los extractos etanólicos de hojas y corteza de Ximenia americana L y Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl solos y en asociación con eritromicina como moduladores de la resistencia microbiana frente a seis aislados clínicos de Staphylococcus aureus resistentes a Eritromicina (SA1-SA6) y S. aureus ATCC 25923, por el método de microdilución. Además se determinó la actividad tóxica de los extractos contra Artemia salina. Solo el extracto etanólico de la corteza de X. americana mostró un efecto sinérgico con la eritromicina frente a SA01, SA03 y SA04. El extracto de las hojas de S. brasiliensis ejerció efecto sinérgico contra SA03 y el extracto de corteza, contra SA01 y S03. Los resultados sugieren que S. brasiliensis y X. americana tienen potencial como agentes moduladores de la resistencia bacteriana, que podrían ser utilizados como adyuvantes en el tratamiento de infecciones por S. aureus resistentes a eritromicina, con estudios previos de toxicidad.

Evaluation of the toxicity and molluscicidal and larvicidal activities of Schinopsis brasiliensis stem bark extract and its fractions

Dengue fever and schistosomiasis are major public health issues for which vector control using larvicide and molluscicide substances present in plants provides a promising strategy. This study evaluated the potential toxicity of the extract of hydroethanol Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl., Anacardiaceae, stem bark and its chloroform, hexane, ethyl acetate, and hydromethanol fractions against Artemia salina and Aedes Aegypti larvae and snails Biomphalaria glabrata. All of the assays were performed in triplicate and the mean mortality rates were used to determine the LC50 and LC90 values using the probit method. The hydroethanol hydromethanol extract and fraction were free of toxicity towards A. salina (LC50 > 1000 µg/ml), while chloroform fraction was moderately toxic (LC50 313 µg/ml); ethyl acetate and hexane fractions displayed low toxicity, with LC50 557 and 582 µg/ml, respectively. Chloroform, hexane, and ethyl acetate fractions showed larvicidal potential towards A. aegypti (LC50 values of 345, 527 and 583 µg/ml, respectively), while chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions were highly toxic to B. glabrata (LC90 values of 68 and 73 µg/ml, respectively). Based on these findings, ethyl acetate, chloroform, and hexane fractions should be further investigated for their potential use against the vectors of dengue and schistosomiasis.

Adequacy of methodology for germination of diaspores of barauna, Schinopsis brasiliensis (Anacardiaceae) / Adequação da metodologia para germinação de diásporos de baraúna, Schinopsis brasiliensis (Anacardiaceae)

Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. (Anacardiaceae) is a typical "Caatinga" (savanna) tree, whose seed germination occurs in a slow and irregular. The ideal conditions for seed germination of many tree species are still unknown. The present study objective was to evaluate different temperatures and substrates to establish a protocol for seed germination Schinopsis brasiliensis, conducted at the Federal University of Paraiba, Areia, Paraiba State (PB), Brazil. Therefore, different temperatures (25, 30, 35 and 20-30 ºC) and substrates (including sand, vermiculite between, on paper, between paper and paper roll) were used. To assess the effect of treatments for germination (%), first germination count (%), germination velocity index (GSI), lengths of the principal root and of the aerial portion of the seedlings and dry weights of the root system and of the aerial portion of the seedlings. The experimental design was completely randomized with treatments arranged in a 4 x 5 factorial arrangement (temperature and substrate), four replicates of 25 diaspores for each treatment. The means were compared by Tukey test at 1% probability and orthogonal contrasts between temperatures (35 vs 30 º C, 30 vs 25 º C and 20-30 vs 30 º C). The germination tests of S. brasiliensis should analyze the numbers of seedlings germinated 10 (first count) and 20 days (final evaluation) after sowing; The combination of a vermiculite substrate and alternating temperature (20-30 ºC) was best for stimulating the germination of S. brasiliensis diaspores.

Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. (Anacardiaceae) é uma árvore típica da caatinga, cuja germinação das sementes ocorre de forma lenta e irregular. As condições ideais de germinação das sementes de muitas espécies ainda não são bem conhecidas. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar diferentes temperaturas e substratos para o estabelecimento de um protocolo de germinação para sementes de Schinopsis brasiliensis, conduzido na Universidade Federal da Paraíba, em Areia-PB. Para tanto, foram utilizados diferentes temperaturas (25, 30, 35 e 20-30 ºC) e substratos (entre areia, entre vermiculita, sobre papel, entre papel e rolo de papel). Para avaliação do efeito dos tratamentos foram realizados testes de germinação (%), primeira contagem de germinação (%), índice de velocidade de germinação (IVG), comprimento da raiz principal e da parte aérea das plântulas e massa seca do sistema radicular e da parte aérea das plântulas. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente ao acaso, com os tratamentos distribuídos em arranjo fatorial 4 x 5 (temperaturas e substratos), em quatro repetições de 25 diásporos para cada tratamento. As médias foram comparadas pelo teste de Tukey, ao nível de 1% de probabilidade e por contrastes ortogonais entre temperaturas (35 vs 30 ºC, 30 vs 25 ºC e 20-30 vs 30 ºC). Para o teste de germinação de S. brasiliensis, as plântulas devem ser analisadas aos 10 (primeira contagem) e 20 dias (avaliação final) do semeio; O substrato vermiculita e a temperatura alternada 20-30 ºC são mais indicados para a germinação dos diásporos e o desenvolvimento inicial de plântulas de S. brasiliensis. A temperatura constante de 35 ºC é prejudicial à germinação dos diásporos de S. brasiliensis.

Atividade antimicrobiana e sinérgica das frações das folhas de Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. frente a clones multirresistentes de Staphylococcus aureus / Antimicrobial and synergic activity of fractions from the leaves of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. against Staphylococcus aureus multiresistant clones

No presente estudo objetivou-se avaliar a atividade antimicrobiana e sinérgica de 4 frações das folhas de Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl (F1', F2', F1" e F2") frente às cepas Staphylococcus aureus MRSA multirresistentes. Os métodos utilizados foram poços de difusão em ágar, concentração mínima inibitória (CMI) - diluição em ágar, e bioautografia. Nos resultados bioautográficos observou-se três halos de inibição relacionados, no mínimo, à quatro constituintes ativos; sendo dois deles isolados das folhas (galato de metila e ácido gálico). A F2" (200∝g/mL) apresentou halos de inibição de 16 e 19mm frente as cepas de S. aureus multirresistente e Klebsiella pneumoniae, e CMI 100∝g/mL, respectivamente. Quanto as análises das associações das frações F1" ou F2" (25 e 50∝g/mL) com a tetraciclina e oxacilina, mostraram ações aditiva e sinérgica para a F2" (50∝g/mL), embora não suficiente para que a CMI atingisse valores inferiores a 2 e 4∝g/mL, necessário para serem classificadas como cepas sensíveis a oxacilina e tetraciclina, respectivamente. "Assim, conclui-se que a F2" das folhas de S. brasiliensis apresentou potencial antimicrobiano frente às cepas de S. aureus MRSA multirresistentes e que as associações das frações com os antibióticos testados não apresentaram benefícios não justificando o uso concomitante.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial and synergic activity of 4 leaf fractions of Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl (F1', F2', F1" and F2") against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. The used methods were agar well diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) - agar dilution, and bioautography. The bioautographic results showed three inhibition zones that corresponded to at least four active compounds, two of which (methyl gallate and gallic acid) have already been isolated from leaves. The F2" (200∝g/mL) fraction showed inhibition zones of 16 mm and 19 mm against S. aureus multidrug-resistant and Klebsiella pneumoniae strains and a MIC value of 100∝g/mL, respectively. The analyses of associations of fraction F1" or F2" (25 and 50∝g/mL) with tetracycline and oxacillin showed additive and synergistic action for F2" (50∝g/mL), although it was not enough to decrease the MIC values to less than 2 and 4∝g/mL, necessary to classify the strains as susceptible to oxacillin and tetracycline, respectively. Thus, it was concluded that F2" from the leaves of S. brasiliensis showed antimicrobial potential against multidrug-resistant MRSA strains, and the associations of the fractions with the tested antibiotics showed no benefits, not justifying their concomitant use.